Publications
Published: 24 November 2021
Mycorrhizal symbiosis balances rootstock‑mediated growth‑defence
tradeoffs
It is well known that AM symbiosis provides several ecosystem services leading to plant adaptation in different environmen-tal conditions and positively affects physiological and production features. Although beneficial effects from grapevine and AM fungi interactions have been reported, the impact on growth-defence tradeoff features has still to be elucidated. In this study, the potential benefits of an inoculum formed by two AM fungal species, with or without a monosaccharide addition, were evaluated on young grapevine cuttings grafted onto 1103P and SO4 rootstocks. Inoculated and non-inoculated plants were maintained in potted vineyard substrate under greenhouse conditions for 3 months. Here, agronomic features were combined with biochemical and molecular techniques to assess the influence of the different treatments. Despite the opposite behaviour of the two selected rootstocks, in AM samples, the evaluation of gene expression, agronomic traits and metabolites production revealed an involvement of the whole root microbiome in the growth-defence tradeoff balancing. Noteworthy, we showed that rootstock genotypes and treatments shaped the root-associated microbes, stimulating plant growth and defence pathways. Progresses in this field would open new perspectives, enabling the application of AMF or their inducers to achieve a more sustainable agriculture also in light of the ongoing climate change.
Published: 19 January 2022
Abiotic Stress and Belowground Microbiome: The Potential of Omics Approaches
Nowadays, the worldwide agriculture is experiencing a transition process toward more sustainable production, which requires the reduction of chemical inputs and the preservation of microbiomes’ richness and biodiversity. Plants are no longer considered as standalone entities, and the future of agriculture should be grounded on the study of plant-associated microorganisms and all their potentiality. Moreover, due to the climate change scenario and the resulting rising incidence of abiotic stresses, an innovative and environmentally friendly technique in agroecosystem management is required to support plants in facing hostile environments. Plant-associated microorganisms have shown a great attitude as a promising tool to improve agriculture sustainability and to deal with harsh environments. Several studies were carried out in recent years looking for some beneficial plant-associated microbes and, on the basis of them, it is evident that Actinomycetes and arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) have shown a considerable number of positive effects on plants’ fitness and health. Given the potential of these microorganisms and the effects of climate change, this review will be focused on their ability to support the plant during the interaction with abiotic stresses and on multi-omics techniques which can support researchers in unearthing the hidden world of plant–microbiome interactions. These associated microorganisms can increase plants’ endurance of abiotic stresses through several mechanisms, such as growth-promoting traits or priming-mediated stress tolerance. Using a multi-omics approach, it will be possible to deepen these mechanisms and the dynamic of belowground microbiomes, gaining fundamental information to exploit them as staunch allies and innovative weapons against crop abiotic enemies threatening crops in the ongoing global climate change context.
Published: 12 January 2023
From Plant Nursery to Field: Persistence of Mycorrhizal
Symbiosis Balancing Effects on Growth-Defence Tradeoffs
Mediated by Rootstock
The plant domestication process led to crops with strongly modified growth-defense tradeoff features, and crops that were much more pampered in terms of nutrition, irrigation and defense measures, showing less ability to trigger adaptation strategies with respect to their wild relatives. It is worth noting that plants are not alone, they share their environment with a myriad of microbes supporting them with many relevant functions. We have already demonstrated that an arbuscular mycorrhizal fungal (AMF) inoculum (formed by two AMF species, i.e., Rhizophagus irregularis and Funneliformis mosseae) is able to balance growth and defense responses in two grapevine rootstocks
with opposite tradeoff features. In the present study, we evaluated the persistence of AMF-mediated balancing effects under field conditions, confirming the positive impact of the symbiosis in vineyards.
In detail, some genes related to nitrogen (N) uptake and metabolism were specifically modulated by the presence of the symbionts, while others were not. Additionally, photosynthetic performances and stilbenes accumulation were influenced by the AMF presence. Overall, our results open new questions about the timing of AMF inoculation in grapevine to obtain a stable and functional symbiosis, suggesting that an early inoculation can facilitate the interaction between grapevine roots and these beneficial microorganisms
Published: 26 February 2025
Broad Spectrum Antimicrobial Activity of Bacteria Isolated from
Vitis vinifera Leaves
It is known that plant-associated microorganisms must be considered as key drivers for plant health, productivity, community composition, and ecosystem functioning.
Much attention has been paid to the exploration of the plant-associated microbiome in search of new microorganisms with antagonistic activity against various phytopathogens. P. viticola represents one of the main fungal agents of grape yield losses during the pre-harvest
stage. To date, the use of chemical pesticides is the main method to control downy mildew infection in vineyards. In recent years, innovative and more environmentally suitable control strategies, such as Biological Control Agents (BCAs), have been greatly improved.
In this study, 16 new bacterial strains, isolated from the leaves of three table grape cultivars, were tested for their in vivo effectiveness against downy mildew of grape, resulting in one B. velenzensis (‘BLG_B4), one P. pleuroti (‘BLG_B5), one P. psychrotolerans (‘BLG_B1.3’)
and one B. subtilis (‘BLG_B1.1.1’) bacterial strains that were marked as good BCAs. As possible mechanisms of action, a genetic analysis was performed to evaluate the ability of selected bacterial strains to reduce the expression of two P. viticola effectors. Finally, their
effectiveness against a wide range of fungal pathogens and their safety for human health was also evaluated.
Published: 19 January 2022
Novel sustainable strategies to control
Plasmopara viticola in grapevine unveil
new insights on priming responses and
arthropods ecology
BACKGROUND: Reduction of fungicide consumption in agriculture is globally recognized as a priority. Government authorities are fostering research to achieve a reduction of risks associated with conventional pesticides and promoting the development of sustainable alternatives. To address these issues, in the present study, alternative protocols for the control of downy mildew infection in grapevine were compared to the standard protocol. In the first protocol, only resistance inducers were used, com-prising a single formulation with Acibenzolar S-methyl, laminarin and disodium-phosphonate. The second and third protocols followed the standard protocol but substituted phosphonates with phosphorus pentoxide and Ecklonia maxima extract.
RESULTS: The results showed that at veraison downy mildew incidence and severity in all tested protocols were significantly reduced compared to nontreated controls on both canopy and bunches. Expression analysis of key genes involved in plant stress response, indicated that the two protocols for phosphites substitution induced a remodulation of salicylic acid (SA) and jasmonic acid (JA), with positive impact on yields. Analysis of the first protocol revealed that the primed state induced a short delay in bunch ripening, with a shift of carbohydrate metabolism to boost the plant defences, involving an upregulation of defence related-gene, SAR response and a decreased ROS detoxification. Additionally, analysis on the arthropods populations, in parallel with the positive results achieved using alternatives to conventional fungicides, were enriched by those showing the potential of naturally occurring predators of spider mites.
CONCLUSION: This study provides practical solutions to reduce the environmental impact of treatments for the control downy mildew in viticulture.
Published: July 2025
Unveiling the bioactive potential of endophytic fungi
Ubiquitous endophytic fungi, residing asymptomatically within plant tissues, harbor immense potential as biocontrol agents against diverse phytopathogens. This biodiversity exhibits multiple antifungal mechanisms, including direct inhibition through the production of lipopeptides, antibiotics, and lytic enzymes. Endophytes prevent colonization and establishment by competitively depriving pathogens of essential nutrients and space. Furthermore, they engage in active parasitism, directly consuming pathogen cells, and utilize siderophore production to sequester iron crucial for pathogen growth. Notably, endophytes trigger induced systemic resistance within the host plant, enabling broader protection against pathogens. This review comprehensively explores the potential of endophytic fungi as biocontrol agents, delving into their biology, isolation, identification, and antifungal activity. It highlights the secondary metabolites that are produced by endophytic fungi and their defensive responses against phytopathogens. Additionally, the review briefly discusses techniques employed to study these microbial interactions within host plants. By unraveling the intricacies of these mechanisms, researchers pave the way for optimizing endophytic fungi as eco-friendly and sustainable alternatives to traditional chemical fungicides, ultimately promoting
sustainable plant disease management.
Published: 11 October 2024
Biology, diversity, detection and management of Plasmopara viticola
causing downy mildew of grapevine (Vitis spp.)
Grapevine downy mildew is a devastating disease that wreaks havoc on grapevines (Vitis vinifera L.) worldwide. The causal organism of this disease is Plasmopara viticola, a diploid obligate biotrophic oomycete native to North America. This pathogen has swiftly spread to grape-growing regions across the globe, particularly those blessed with warm, humid climates. Plasmopara viticola possesses a flexible mating system, employing both sexual and asexual means to propagate its lineage. Plasmopara viticola life cycle involves the production and dispersal of zoospores for grapevine infection. Zoospores produced within sporangia are released by rain or wind and swim in
free water on the grapevine surface. They are attracted to stomata, where they encyst, germinate, and penetrate the host tissue. A substomatal vesicle develops, giving rise to intercellular mycelium. Under favorable conditions (warm, humid nights), sporulation occurs. Sporangiophores emerge through stomata, bearing sporangia that produce new zoospores. These zoospores are then dispersed by wind
and rain to initiate new infection cycles on grapevine tissues. Meanwhile, P. viticola's resilience is further enhanced by its ability to produce thick-walled oospores, which can overwinter in infected leaf debris, ready to unleash a fresh wave of destruction in the following spring. Downy mildew's destructive reach extends to all green tissues of grapevines, leaving a trail of devastation in its wake.
Infection of leaves cripples photosynthetic efficiency, leading to a decline in grape quality. The infection of inflorescences and berries directly translates into yield losses. The current mainstay of downy mildew control is a heavy reliance on fungicide treatments. However, this approach is riddled with drawbacks, including exorbitant expenses, potential threats to human health, environmental
contamination, and the inevitable emergence of fungicide resistance. In light of these shortcomings, researchers are actively exploring alternative, ecologically sound strategies to curb downy mildew's rampage, aiming to strike an integrated disease management balance between effective disease control and environmental stewardship. This comprehensive review provides in-depth insights into
P. viticola, encompassing its taxonomy, host-pathogen interactions, symptoms, economic impact, epidemiology, distribution, infection mechanisms, and control strategies, with a strong focus on sustainable methods.
Published: 21 March 2025
Exploring the potential of lipid elicitors to enhance plant immunity
Lipids besides being components of membranes and storage molecules are also involved in signalling processes
and have proven to be vital components in plant defence mechanisms. Over the past decades, the intricate lipidsignalling pathways that underlie the establishment of defence responses have been extensively studied. These
molecules can act directly as signalling agents in plant defence or serve as precursors in a plethora of biosynthetic
pathways, leading to the production of phytohormones and other signalling agents. Lipids have proven to be
promising elicitors by not only trigger a robust and appropriate defence response, across various plant species,
but also induce resistance against a wide range of pathogens. Allied to this, lipids are widespread molecules in
nature, which makes them an accessible resource and highlights their potential use as a sustainable approach to
crop protection. This comprehensive review emphasizes the potential of lipids and lipid-derived molecules as
elicitors in developing sustainable agricultural practices. By leveraging the natural defence mechanisms of plants,
lipid elicitors offer a viable and eco-friendly alternative to conventional pest management strategies, contributing
to the overall goal of sustainable agriculture.
Published: 11 March 2024
Marine Plant Growth Promoting Bacteria (PGPB) inoculation technology:
Testing the effectiveness of different application methods to improve
tomato plants tolerance against acute heat wave stress
Regenerative agriculture aims to boost native biodiversity and ensure sustainable production. Plant Growth
Promoting Bacteria (PGPB) enhance crop yield through improved nutrient use efficiency or stress tolerance.
Utilizing synthetic bacterial communities (SynCom) tailored to specific challenges holds promise for enhancing
plant resilience. However, challenges include designing microbial consortia and selecting SynCom application
techniques. This study tested four PGPB SynCom application methods on tomato plants to evaluate their
effectiveness in promoting plant resistance and recovery from short extreme heat waves. Non-invasive phenotyping techniques were used to assess plant responses to three delivery methods (watering, foliar spray, and
alginate spheres immobilization) under heat stress. Plants treated with the marine PGPB SynCom through
methods like leaf spraying or encapsulation in alginate spheres exhibited improved resilience in terms of Kautsky
curve intensity and shape, indicating better photochemical apparatus function. These techniques also facilitated
post-stress recovery. Deep photochemical analysis revealed SynCom-induced improvements in the plant’s
photochemical apparatus, particularly the PS II donor side. Moreover, it was also possible to observe that upon
stress relief these two techniques, alongside the plants inoculated throughout watering were able to recover their
photochemical profiles. Analysing the Fv/Fm values, plants inoculated through watering, alginate beads and leaf
spray can be considered heat-tolerant, a characteristic conserved throughout the three sampling moments. Heatwave exposure led to an increase in the energy absorbed by the non-inoculated plants as a counteractive measure
to overcome the low energy use efficiency observed (low trapping and transported energy fluxes). The reduction
in stress impact was attributed to SynCom’s ACC-deaminase production, which lowered ethylene accumulation,
promoting growth and photosynthetic efficiency. The study also noted reduced energy dissipation under stress
relief, indicating efficient heat dissipation mechanisms due to SynCom application. Statistical models generated
with the attained photochemical data allowed depicting specific fluorescence signatures of each thermal and
inoculation treatment with a very high degree of accuracy, reinforcing that these different inoculation treatments
have in fact different impacts on plant photochemistry but also provide a tool for future phenotyping assessments
using the proposed inoculation techniques. Alginate bead based PGPB release emerged as an efficient, scalable
technique with continuous benefits for plant growth and stress response.
Published: 27 March 2023
Improving Grapevine Heat Stress Resilience with Marine Plant
Growth-Promoting Rhizobacteria Consortia
Amid climate change, heatwave events are expected to increase in frequency and severity.
As a result, yield losses in viticulture due to heatwave stress have increased over the years. As one of
the most important crops in the world, an eco-friendly stress mitigation strategy is greatly needed.
The present work aims to evaluate the physiological fitness improvement by two marine plant growth-promoting rhizobacteria consortia in Vitis vinifera cv. Antão Vaz under heatwave conditions. To
assess the potential biophysical and biochemical thermal stress feedback amelioration, photochemical
traits, pigment and fatty acid profiles, and osmotic and oxidative stress biomarkers were analysed.
Bioaugmented grapevines exposed to heatwave stress presented a significantly enhanced photoprotection capability and higher thermo-stability, exhibiting a significantly lower dissipation energy flux
than the non-inoculated plants. Additionally, one of the rhizobacterial consortia tested improved
light-harvesting capabilities by increasing reaction centre availability and preserving photosynthetic
efficiency. Rhizobacteria inoculation expressed an osmoprotectant promotion, revealed by the lower
osmolyte concentration while maintaining leaf turgidity. Improved antioxidant mechanisms and
membrane stability resulted in lowered lipid peroxidation product formation when compared to
non-inoculated plants. Although the consortia were found to differ significantly in their effectiveness,
these findings demonstrate that bioaugmentation induced significant heatwave stress tolerance and
mitigation. This study revealed the promising usage of marine PGPR consortia to promote plant
fitness and minimize heatwave impacts in grapevines.
Published: 6 March 2023
A New Perspective for Vineyard Terroir Identity: Looking for
Microbial Indicator Species by Long Read Nanopore Sequencing
Grapevine is one of the most important fruit crops worldwide, being Portugal one of
the top wine producers. It is well established that wine sensory characteristics from a particular
region are defined by the physiological responses of the grapevine to its environment and thus, the
concept of terroir in viticulture was established. Among all the factors that contribute to terroir
definition, soil microorganisms play a major role from nutrient recycling to a drastic influence on
plant fitness (growth and protection) and of course wine production. Soil microbiome from four
different terroirs in Quinta dos Murças vineyard was analysed through long-read Oxford Nanopore
sequencing. We have developed an analytical pipeline that allows the identification of function,
ecologies, and indicator species based on long read sequencing data. The Douro vineyard was used
as a case study, and we were able to establish microbiome signatures of each terroir.
Published: 29 August 2022
Transcriptomic and methylation analysis of susceptible and
tolerant grapevine genotypes following Plasmopara viticola
infection
Downy mildew, caused by the biotrophic oomycete Plasmopara viticola, is one of the most economically significant grapevine diseases worldwide. Current strategies to cope with this threat rely on the massive use of chemical compounds during each cultivation season. The economic costs and negative environmental impact associated with these applications increased the urge to search for sustainable strategies of disease control. Improved knowledge of plant mechanisms to counteract pathogen infection may allow the development of alternative strategies for plant protection. Epigenetic regulation, in particular DNA methylation, is emerging as a key factor in the context of plant–pathogen interactions associated with the expression modulation of defence genes. To improve our understanding of the genetic and epigenetic mechanisms underpinning grapevine response to P. viticola, we studied the modulation of both 5-mC methylation and gene expression at 6 and 24 h post-infection (hpi). Leaves of two table grape genotypes (Vitis vinifera), selected by breeding activities for their contrasting level of susceptibility to the pathogen, were analysed. Following pathogen infection, we found variations in the 5-mC methylation level and the gene expression profile. The results indicate a genotype-specific response to pathogen infection. The tolerant genotype (N23/018) at 6 hpi exhibits a lower methylation level compared to the susceptible one (N20/020), and it shows an early modulation (at 6 hpi) of defence and epigenetic-related genes during P. viticola infection. These data suggest that the timing of response is an important mechanism to efficiently counteract the pathogen attack
Published: 6 March 2023
Breeding toward improved ecological
plant–microbiome interactions
Domestication processes, amplified by breeding programs, have allowed the selection of more productive genotypes and more suitable crop lines capable of coping with the changing climate. Notwithstanding these advancements, the impact of plant breeding on the ecology of plant–microbiome interactions has not been adequately considered yet. This includes the possible exploitation of beneficial plant–microbe interactions to develop crops with improved performance and better adaptability to any environmental scenario. Here we discuss the exploitation of customized synthetic microbial communities in agricultural systems to develop more sustainable breeding strategies based on the implementation of multiple interactions between plants and their beneficial associated microorganisms.
Published: 22 July 2022
Microbe-assisted crop improvement: a sustainable
weapon to restore holobiont functionality and resilience
In the past years, breeding programs have been mainly addressed on pushing the commercial features, forgetting important traits,
such as those related to environmental stress resilience, that are instead present in wild relatives. Among the traits neglected by breeding processes, the ability to recruit beneficial microorganisms that recently is receiving a growing attention due to its potentiality. In
this context, this review will provide a spotlight on critical issues of the anthropocentric point of view that, until now, has characterized
the selection of elite plant genotypes. Its effects on the plant-microbiome interactions, and the possibility to develop novel strategies
mediated by the exploitation of beneficial root-microbe interactions, will be discussed. More sustainable microbial-assisted strategies
might in fact foster the green revolution and the achievement of a more sustainable agriculture in a climatic change scenario.
Published: 7 July 2025
Investigating the potential role of beneficial rhizobacteria for
protecting grapevine health and promoting growth
Beneficial rhizobacteria play a crucial role in promoting plant growth and enhancing soil health by producing key enzymes, facilitating nutrient cycling, and suppressing phytopathogens. This study investigated the physicochemical properties of soil from 32 grapevine sites in the Sidi Bouzid region of Tunisia and evaluated the plant growth-promoting and biocontrol potential of bacterial isolates against Botrytis cinerea, the causative agent of gray mold. Soil analysis revealed significant variation in pH (6.78 to 8.07), organic matter (0.44%−1.59%), and nutrient content, while electrical conductivity remained stable. A total of 107 bacterial isolates were isolated from soil samples and recovered, of which 97 were non-pathogenic and tested for multiple plant growth-promoting traits. Enzymatic screening revealed production of catalase, pectinase, cellulase, and chitinase among others. In vitro assays identified four isolates (H3Rh1, ZRh5, GRh5, and SRh2) with strong antifungal activity, achieving up to 99.3% growth inhibition of B. cinerea. In detached leaf assays, the isolates H3Rh1, ZRh5, GRh5, and SRh2 achieved inhibitory growth potential values of 92.33%, 93.73%, 93.02%, and 96.99% against B. cinerea, respectively. Molecular analysis confirmed the isolates as Arthrobacter globiformis, Priestia megaterium, Bacillus cabrialesii, and Bacillus mojavensis, with >99% sequence identity and deposited in GenBank. These strains also demonstrated strong plant growth-promoting attributes, including nitrogen fixation, phosphate and potassium solubilization, and indole acetic acid and siderophore production. This study highlights the biocontrol potential of native rhizobacteria as eco-friendly alternatives to chemical fungicides for managing gray mold in grapevines and promoting sustainable viticulture.
Published: 2 April 2025
Microbial inoculants for plant resilience performance: roles, prospects
and challenges
Microbial inoculants, single or consortia, are groups of microorganisms or their product that can be directly applied in soil
or in plant. They have a positive impact on both soil and plant by restoring soil fertility and improving plant performance.
Bacteria and fungi are essential components of plant ecosystems. These microbes include different kinds of groups as follows:
plant growth-promoting microorganisms (PGPMs), biological control agents (BCAs), and symbiosis (SM). Many
mechanisms of these microbes can service plants for growing and protection against biotic and abiotic stress by producing
antimicrobial, mycoparasitism, biostimulation, and other useful compounds. Biostimulation is one of the measures that
help plants to confront different stress and boost the growth. Biostimulants gained increasing attention as an alternative to
chemical fertilizers and pesticides, due to their ability to promote plant growth, enhance nutrient uptake, and improve plant
defense against stresses both biotic and abiotic. This current review aims to fill the gap in the current knowledge by citing
the various aspects of biostimulants by PGPM and BCAs that comprise action mechanisms, application modes, types of
microorganisms, and their influences on the management of plant diseases as well as plant vigor. It is relevant to determine
the challenges and opportunities associated with the wide and commercial application of microbial inoculants to be a valuable
alternative in sustainable agriculture.
Published: 2 April 2025
Plant Diseases: Pathogenicity and integrated management overview
Integrated pest and disease management (IPDM) is a strategic approach that combines multiple pest and pathogen control methods to optimize their reduction while minimizing ecological and economic consequences. This multifaceted strategy serves as a fundamental component of sustainable agricultural systems, emphasizing the balanced integration of various methods to achieve effective and environmentally responsible pest and pathogen suppression. Modern agricultural practices, characterized by intensified production and monoculture systems, create optimal environments for pathogen proliferation and virulence. These conditions necessitate the IPDM strategies. Integrated pest and disease management is crucial for mitigating pathogen-induced losses and ensuring sustainable agricultural production. It aims to minimize reliance on chemical fungicides by promoting environment-friendly and economically viable strategies for disease control. This review delves into the major pathogens that affect the plants and the intricate relationship between IPDM and sustainable agriculture, examining the key principles, strategies, and benefits associated with integrating these disease management practices into the agricultural system. It underscores the crucial role of IPDM in minimizing environmental impacts, protecting beneficial organisms, fostering genetic diversity, and ensuring economic sustainability. By adopting integrated pest and disease management strategies, farmers can effectively manage plant diseases while simultaneously safeguarding the long-term health and productivity of their agricultural systems.
Published: 5 June 2024
Eicosapentaenoic acid: New insights into an oomycete-driven elicitor to
enhance grapevine immunity
The widespread use of pesticides in agriculture remains a matter of major concern, prompting a critical need for
alternative and sustainable practices. To address this, the use of lipid-derived molecules as elicitors to induce
defence responses in grapevine plants was accessed. A Plasmopara viticola fatty acid (FA), eicosapentaenoic acid
(EPA) naturally present in oomycetes, but absent in plants, was applied by foliar spraying to the leaves of the
susceptible grapevine cultivar (Vitis vinifera cv. Trincadeira), while a host lipid derived phytohormone, jasmonic
acid (JA) was used as a molecule known to trigger host defence. Their potential as defence triggers was assessed
by analysing the expression of a set of genes related to grapevine defence and evaluating the FA modulation upon
elicitation. JA prompted grapevine immunity, altering lipid metabolism and up-regulating the expression of
several defence genes. EPA also induced a myriad of responses to the levels typically observed in tolerant plants.
Its application activated the transcription of defence gene’s regulators, pathogen-related genes and genes
involved in phytoalexins biosynthesis. Moreover, EPA application resulted in the alteration of the leaf FA profile,
likely by impacting biosynthetic, unsaturation and turnover processes. Although both molecules were able to
trigger grapevine defence mechanisms, EPA induced a more robust and prolonged response. This finding establishes EPA as a promising elicitor for an effectively managing grapevine downy mildew disease
Published: 1 April 2024
Investigating the effectiveness of endophytic fungi under biotic and abiotic
agricultural stress conditions
Endophytic fungi play crucial roles in promoting plant growth and enhancing
stress tolerance, making them valuable allies in agriculture. This reviewer
explores the advantageous roles and implications of endophytic fungi in plant
stress tolerance, focusing on hormonal regulation, nutrient uptake, and their
management of various abiotic and biotic stresses. Endophytic fungi influence
the production of plant hormones such as auxins, cytokinins, and gibberellins;
thus, contributing to enhanced growth and stress resilience. They also assist in
nutrient uptake, solubilizing minerals, and fixing atmospheric nitrogen; thereby
improving overall plant nutrition. This reviewer discusses the mechanism of
endophytic fungi’s effectiveness in managing biotic and abiotic stresses,
including; high CO2 levels, waterlogging/drought, salinity, high temperatures,
salinity, heavy metal stress as well as plant pathogens and parasitic attacks.
Furthermore, the bio-control capabilities of endophytic fungi against biotic
stresses are highlighted, showcasing mechanisms such as induced resistance,
mycoparasitism, antibiosis, and competition. The biological activities of recently
isolated compounds and associated endophytic fungi are also discussed. Thus, as
research in this field progresses, harnessing the full potential of endophytic
fungi holds promise for promoting resilient and sustainable agriculture in the
face of changing environmental conditions.